Who Was Voltaire?

Background and Early Life

Voltaire was born François-Marie Arouet on November 21, 1694, in Paris, France. He came from a middle-class family, and his father worked as a notary. Voltaire was educated at a Jesuit school, the Collège Louis-le-Grand, where he developed a strong foundation in classical literature, history, and rhetoric. Despite his formal education in the humanities, Voltaire's family hoped he would pursue a legal career. However, Voltaire was more interested in literature, particularly writing poetry and plays, much to his father's dismay.

His early life set the stage for his lifelong rebellion against authority and his critique of institutionalized religion and governance. Voltaire's wit and intellect quickly made him popular in aristocratic circles, but they also earned him enemies. In 1717, he was imprisoned in the Bastille for mocking the French regent in a satirical poem. This was the first of many conflicts with authorities that Voltaire would encounter throughout his life.

Philosophical Influence

Voltaire's work is most closely associated with the Enlightenment, an intellectual and cultural movement that emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. Enlightenment thinkers sought to challenge the old social orders, particularly the influence of the church and the monarchy, and Voltaire was one of the movement’s most prominent voices.

He was heavily influenced by the ideas of John Locke and Isaac Newton. Locke’s theories about government and individual rights shaped Voltaire’s views on personal liberty and his critiques of absolute monarchy. Newton's scientific methods and emphasis on reason inspired Voltaire’s belief in the power of rational thought over superstition and dogma.

Voltaire traveled extensively, spending significant time in England, where he was particularly impressed by the country’s constitutional monarchy and its relatively greater freedom of speech compared to France. His observations of English society are captured in his book Letters on the English (1734), which compared English governance and religious tolerance favorably to the absolutism and Catholic orthodoxy of France. This work caused an uproar in France, leading to its censorship and forcing Voltaire to flee Paris once again.

Major Works

Voltaire was a prolific writer, producing plays, essays, novels, historical studies, and thousands of letters during his lifetime. His writing spanned many genres and topics, but his primary themes were always related to justice, freedom, and the abuse of power.

1. Candide (1759): This is perhaps Voltaire’s most famous work. It is a satirical novella that critiques blind optimism, especially the philosophy of Leibniz, who believed that “all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds.” The protagonist, Candide, experiences a series of increasingly absurd and tragic misadventures, leading him to question this optimistic worldview. Through this work, Voltaire ridicules the idea that suffering is part of a divine plan, and he promotes a more practical, humanistic approach to life.
2. Treatise on Tolerance (1763): After the wrongful execution of Jean Calas, a Protestant accused of murdering his son to prevent his conversion to Catholicism, Voltaire launched a campaign for justice. This event spurred him to write the Treatise on Tolerance, in which he condemned religious fanaticism and called for greater religious tolerance and freedom of thought.
3. Letters on the English (1734): As mentioned earlier, this collection of letters compared French and English societies. Voltaire admired England’s constitutional monarchy, religious tolerance, and intellectual freedom, contrasting it with the repression and absolutism in France. The book was banned in France, further cementing Voltaire’s reputation as a radical thinker.
4. The Philosophical Dictionary (1764): This work is a collection of articles in which Voltaire critiqued a wide range of subjects, including religion, politics, and philosophy. He used wit and irony to challenge the dogmas of the Catholic Church and the tyranny of absolute rulers. The Philosophical Dictionary was particularly effective in spreading Enlightenment ideas because it was written in an accessible and engaging style.
5. The History of Charles XII (1731): Voltaire also made significant contributions to historiography. In this work, he used his historical research on the Swedish monarch, Charles XII, to critique the nature of power and military conquest. His approach to history was groundbreaking in that he focused on the causes and effects of historical events rather than viewing history as a chronicle of divine will or destiny.

Critique of Religion

Voltaire is often remembered for his fierce criticism of organized religion, especially the Catholic Church. He was not an atheist—he believed in a deist god, a creator who did not interfere in the world—but he viewed institutionalized religion as a source of oppression and superstition. He famously wrote, “Écrasez l’infâme!” (“Crush the infamous thing!”), referring to the abuses of the Church and religious authorities.

One of his main criticisms of religion was its role in perpetuating ignorance and intolerance. Voltaire viewed religious wars, persecution, and the Inquisition as examples of how faith could be manipulated to justify cruelty and injustice. He advocated for religious tolerance and the separation of church and state, ideas that were revolutionary at the time.

Voltaire’s opposition to religious fanaticism was exemplified in his campaign to clear the name of Jean Calas, as discussed in the Treatise on Tolerance. Calas was a Protestant in Catholic France who was wrongfully accused and executed for the murder of his son. Voltaire’s efforts in this case highlighted his belief in rational justice over religious prejudice.

Political Views

Voltaire was a vocal critic of absolute monarchy, which was the dominant form of government in France during his lifetime. He believed that power should be distributed more evenly among the people, and he admired the constitutional monarchy of England, where the monarch’s power was limited by laws and a parliament. However, Voltaire did not support democracy in its purest form; he was skeptical of the masses' ability to govern themselves and feared that mob rule could be just as tyrannical as a king.

Instead, Voltaire advocated for enlightened despotism, where rulers would be educated in Enlightenment principles and govern for the benefit of their people. He believed that a well-informed and rational monarch could bring about more positive change than a chaotic democracy or an absolutist ruler who governed through fear and superstition.

Legacy and Influence

Voltaire's influence extended far beyond his lifetime, shaping the intellectual foundations of modern Western thought. His ideas on individual liberty, freedom of expression, and the separation of church and state influenced both the American and French revolutions. His writings inspired thinkers like Thomas Jefferson, who echoed Voltaire’s calls for religious freedom and the rights of individuals in the U.S. Declaration of Independence.

Voltaire’s advocacy for reason and critical thinking also helped lay the groundwork for the development of secularism and human rights in Europe. His critiques of religious intolerance and political absolutism resonated with many of his contemporaries, helping to weaken the power of both the Church and the monarchy in France.

Despite his importance in advancing Enlightenment ideals, Voltaire was not without his critics. Some saw him as overly cynical, while others questioned his reluctance to fully embrace democratic principles. However, even his detractors could not deny his impact on the intellectual and political landscape of the 18th century.

The Bottom Line

Voltaire was a pivotal figure in the Enlightenment, using his wit and intellect to challenge the status quo and advocate for justice, liberty, and tolerance. His critiques of religious dogma, absolute monarchy, and societal norms were groundbreaking and influential. Voltaire’s legacy endures through his numerous works, which continue to inspire discussions on freedom, reason, and human rights. His commitment to rationality and justice helped shape the course of modern Western thought, making him one of history’s most significant philosophers and social critics.