What is the Two Treatises of Government?

The Two Treatises of Government is one of the most influential works in political philosophy, written by English philosopher John Locke in 1689. The text is divided into two separate treatises, each dealing with distinct themes related to governance, the legitimacy of rulers, and the nature of individual rights. These writings helped lay the intellectual foundation for modern democratic principles and had a profound impact on later political developments, particularly in Britain, the American colonies, and France.

Historical Background

The Two Treatises of Government were written during a period of intense political upheaval in England. The late 17th century was marked by the English Civil War, the execution of Charles I, the establishment of the Commonwealth under Oliver Cromwell, and ultimately the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which saw the overthrow of James II and the ascension of William and Mary to the throne. Locke's work emerged in this context, offering a justification for the Glorious Revolution and providing a theoretical defense for constitutional monarchy and the limits of governmental power.

Locke's political philosophy in the Two Treatises was also a response to earlier thinkers like Thomas Hobbes, who in his work Leviathan argued for a more authoritarian form of government based on the inherent violence and selfishness of human nature. Locke, on the other hand, believed that humans could cooperate for the common good and that government should exist to protect natural rights rather than impose order by force.

First Treatise: A Critique of Patriarchalism

The First Treatise is often overshadowed by the more famous Second Treatise, but it plays a crucial role in Locke's overall argument. The First Treatise is essentially a refutation of Sir Robert Filmer's Patriarcha, a work that defended the divine right of kings and argued that monarchs derived their authority from the Biblical figure Adam. Filmer claimed that kings were the direct descendants of Adam, and thus their rule was ordained by God and beyond question.

Locke’s First Treatise attacks this notion by arguing that no clear line of authority from Adam to current monarchs could be traced and that even if such a line could be established, it would not justify absolute rule. Locke used historical, Biblical, and logical arguments to dismantle Filmer's patriarchal theory, emphasizing that political power cannot be inherited by birthright or religious sanction. For Locke, the legitimacy of government could not be grounded in such ancient traditions or divine claims.

Second Treatise: A Blueprint for Limited Government

The Second Treatise is the more influential of the two works and forms the core of Locke’s political philosophy. In this treatise, Locke lays out his vision for a legitimate government, focusing on the principles of natural rights, the social contract, and the right to revolution. The central argument of the Second Treatise is that legitimate governments must be based on the consent of the governed and exist to protect the natural rights of individuals—namely, life, liberty, and property.

1. The State of Nature

Locke begins by describing the "state of nature," a hypothetical condition in which humans live without any established government or social structures. Unlike Hobbes, who portrayed the state of nature as violent and chaotic, Locke’s version is more optimistic. He believes that humans are naturally rational and capable of living in a state of peace and equality, bound by the law of nature, which dictates that no one should harm another in their life, health, liberty, or possessions.

However, Locke acknowledges that conflicts can arise even in this relatively peaceful state of nature, particularly over property and resources. Without an impartial authority to resolve disputes, individuals may act unjustly or be wronged by others, leading to insecurity and the threat of violence. This vulnerability in the state of nature is what prompts individuals to form governments through a social contract.

2. The Social Contract

Locke's concept of the social contract is crucial to his theory of government. In Locke’s view, individuals agree to form a government in order to protect their natural rights more effectively. This contract is not a literal agreement but a theoretical framework for understanding the origins of political authority. The key aspect of Locke’s social contract is that the authority of the government is not absolute; it is conditional on the protection of the people's rights. If the government fails to fulfill this role, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.

Unlike Hobbes, who argued for a near-absolute sovereign to maintain order, Locke believes in a government that is limited by the rule of law. The power of the government is delegated by the people and can be revoked if it becomes tyrannical. This idea of government as a protector, not the source, of rights was revolutionary at the time and would go on to influence democratic revolutions in America and France.

3. Property and the Role of Government

One of the most significant aspects of Locke’s political theory is his treatment of property. Locke argues that property rights are a natural extension of an individual’s right to life and liberty. In the state of nature, individuals acquire property by mixing their labor with resources found in nature. For instance, when a person cultivates land or harvests fruit, they make that resource their own by exerting effort to transform it into something valuable.

However, Locke notes that property rights are not unlimited. He introduces the "Lockean Proviso," which states that individuals may only acquire as much property as they can use without wasting it and must leave "enough and as good" for others. This principle places a moral limit on the accumulation of wealth, ensuring that one person's acquisition of resources does not deprive others of the opportunity to survive.

The role of government, according to Locke, is to protect these property rights. Individuals consent to be governed in order to secure their property and avoid the uncertainties of the state of nature. Thus, the primary function of government is to create laws that protect property, enforce contracts, and maintain order, all while respecting the natural rights of the people.

4. The Right to Revolution

Perhaps the most radical aspect of Locke’s Second Treatise is his justification for the right of revolution. Locke argues that when a government fails to protect the natural rights of its citizens—whether by becoming tyrannical or by neglecting its duties—the people have the right to resist and overthrow it. This idea was a direct challenge to the prevailing notion of absolute monarchy and divine right, as it placed ultimate sovereignty in the hands of the people, not the ruler.

Locke’s theory of revolution would later be cited by American colonists in their struggle for independence from Britain. The Declaration of Independence, drafted by Thomas Jefferson, echoes many of Locke's ideas, particularly the emphasis on natural rights and the right to overthrow a government that no longer serves its people.

Influence and Legacy

The Two Treatises of Government had a profound and lasting impact on political thought. Locke’s arguments for limited government, individual rights, and the social contract became foundational to modern democratic theory. His work influenced the development of constitutional governments in Britain, the United States, and France, and continues to be studied by political theorists, historians, and legal scholars today.

Locke's ideas were particularly influential in the drafting of the American Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. The emphasis on life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness (a modification of Locke's original phrase "life, liberty, and property") in the Declaration reflects Locke’s influence on American political thought. Similarly, his advocacy for checks and balances and the separation of powers helped shape the structure of modern democratic institutions.

The Bottom Line

The Two Treatises of Government is a foundational text in the history of political philosophy. Through his critique of absolute monarchy in the First Treatise and his articulation of a government based on natural rights and the social contract in the Second Treatise, Locke helped to shape the principles of modern democracy. His belief in limited government, property rights, and the right to revolution challenged the prevailing political norms of his time and left a lasting legacy that continues to influence democratic theory and practice.